Chapter 8 Social Movements

8.1 Features Of A Social Movement

Many rights and privileges enjoyed today, such as weekends off, limitations on working hours, equal pay for equal work, and social security benefits, are not inherently given but are the result of long struggles by workers and other groups through social movements. Social movements have played a fundamental role in shaping societies throughout history and continue to do so.

Recalling past struggles, such as the 19th-century social reform movements in India, the nationalist movement, civil rights movements in the US, and anti-apartheid struggles, is important to understand how these rights were achieved. Social movements not only bring about change but also inspire future movements. For instance, the Indian national movement influenced the Constitution, which in turn facilitated further social change.

Defining characteristics of a social movement include:

• Sustained Collective Action: Involves long-term, continuous group efforts, not spontaneous, isolated protests.
• Action Against the State: Often targets state policies or practices, demanding change.
• Degree of Organisation: Requires some level of structure, leadership, and established ways for members to interact and make decisions.
• Shared Objectives and Ideology: Participants unite around common goals and a collective understanding of how to achieve (or resist) social change.

These features can evolve over the course of a movement's existence. Social movements typically focus on bringing about change concerning a specific public issue.

Crucially, social change isn't a one-way process. When social movements push for change, counter-movements often emerge to defend the existing status quo. Examples include orthodox opposition to 19th-century reforms like the abolition of sati, introduction of girls' education, and widow remarriage, or resistance to Dalit children enrolling in schools. Peasant and Dalit movements have also faced brutal suppression or retaliatory action. Proposals for reservations have prompted counter-moveements opposing them. Social movements face significant opposition from entrenched interests and values, making change difficult but not impossible over time.

While protest is a visible tactic, social movements engage in other activities, including:

• Mobilizing People: Holding meetings and events to raise awareness and unite people around issues.
• Building Consensus: Developing a shared understanding and agreement on goals and strategies.
• Campaigning: Lobbying government, engaging media, and influencing public opinion.
• Developing Modes of Protest: Creating distinct forms of action (processions, street theatre, songs, etc.). Mahatma Gandhi's use of non-violent resistance (ahimsa, satyagraha) and symbolic actions like the Dandi March (protesting salt tax) are famous examples of innovative protest methods (Box 8.2).

It's important to distinguish between general social change (continuous, ongoing processes) and social movements (directed towards specific goals, involving sustained collective effort). Sanskritisation and westernisation, discussed in Chapter 2, can be seen as broad social changes, while the 19th-century reformers' organized efforts represent social movements aimed at influencing these changes.

8.2 Sociology And Social Movements

Why The Study Of Social Movements Is Important For Sociology

Sociology has been interested in social movements since its inception, as early sociology emerged during periods of significant social upheaval in Europe, such as the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. These events, marked by violent collective actions (protests, riots) challenging existing power structures and living conditions, were central to the concerns of early sociologists.

Thinkers like Emile Durkheim focused on how social structures maintain **social order and integration**, often viewing social movements as disruptive forces leading to disorder. His studies on division of labor, religion, and suicide reflected this concern with social cohesion.

In contrast, scholars influenced by Karl Marx offered alternative interpretations. Historians like E.P. Thompson studied collective actions like food riots, arguing that the participants were not simply chaotic mobs but had a 'moral economy' – a shared sense of what was right and just that motivated their protests. Their research highlighted that poor people often resorted to public protest as a means to express anger against deprivation when other avenues were unavailable.

Studying social movements is crucial for sociology because they reveal how people collectively challenge and attempt to change power relations, social inequalities, and established norms. They demonstrate agency – the capacity of individuals and groups to act independently and make choices, even against systemic constraints. Social movements provide insights into the dynamics of conflict, resistance, and transformation within society.

8.3 Types Of Social Movements

Reformist, Redemptive, Revolutionary

Social movements can be classified based on their goals and the scope of change they seek:

• Redemptive or Transformatory Movements: Aim to bring about fundamental change in the personal consciousness and actions of individual members. An example is the movement led by Narayana Guru among the Ezhava community in Kerala to change their social practices.
• Reformist Movements: Seek to change existing social and political arrangements through gradual, incremental steps, working within the system. Examples include the movement for linguistic reorganisation of Indian states in the 1960s and the recent Right to Information (RTI) campaign.
• Revolutionary Movements: Attempt to radically transform social relations, often by overthrowing the existing power structure, potentially by capturing state power. Examples include the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia and the Naxalite movement in India.

It is important to note that these categories are not always mutually exclusive. Most social movements exhibit a mix of these elements, and their orientation can shift over time (e.g., a revolutionary movement might become reformist). Movements can also transition from phases of mass mobilization to becoming more institutionalized 'social movement organizations'.

How a social movement is perceived and labeled often depends on the perspective of the observer. For instance, the Indian uprising of 1857 was called a 'mutiny' or 'rebellion' by the British colonial rulers, implying defiance against legitimate authority, while Indian nationalists viewed it as the 'first war of Independence', challenging the very legitimacy of British rule. This demonstrates how different groups attach distinct meanings to social movements based on their positions and ideologies.

Distinguishing The New Social Movement From The Old Social Movements

Sociologists distinguish between 'old' and 'new' social movements based on their focus, goals, and organizational forms. 'Old' social movements, particularly in the capitalist West, were often class-based, centered on issues of economic exploitation, labor rights (wages, working conditions, social security), and the struggle for power, sometimes aiming for revolutionary transformation and establishing new societal structures (e.g., socialist movements).

'Old' movements were typically organized within the framework of political parties and trade unions (e.g., Indian National Congress leading the Indian National Movement, Communist Party leading the Chinese Revolution). However, some scholars argue that in affluent welfare states, class-based issues have become less central, leading to the rise of 'new' social movements.

'New' social movements are often seen as focusing less on fundamental power redistribution and more on 'quality-of-life' issues, such as environmental concerns, peace, and civil rights. They tend to be organized outside traditional party politics. Political scientist Rajni Kothari linked the surge of social movements in India since the 1970s to dissatisfaction with parliamentary democracy, arguing that state institutions had been captured by elites, making traditional party politics ineffective for the poor. Consequently, marginalized groups form social movements or non-party political formations to pressure the state from outside. The broader term civil society now often encompasses both traditional party/union-based movements and newer non-governmental organizations, women's groups, environmental groups, and tribal activists.

Distinguishing old and new movements in India is complex. Many contemporary movements address both economic inequality and other issues. They often unite participants across class boundaries (e.g., women's movement includes diverse class groups, regional movements for statehood unite people with varied class identities). Social inequality is often addressed alongside other important issues within these movements, blurring the lines between 'old' class-based concerns and 'new' identity or quality-of-life issues.

Furthermore, with increasing globalisation, many contemporary social movements have an international scope, addressing global issues like environmental risks, corporate power (as highlighted by anti-WTO protests organized via internet networks, Box 8.4), and human rights, often forming alliances across borders.

8.4 Ecological Movements

In the modern era, focusing on development has often led to unchecked exploitation of natural resources and a model that creates new needs driving further resource depletion. This development model has also been criticized for disproportionately benefiting certain groups while displacing or harming others, particularly through large infrastructure projects like dams and industries, and causing environmental pollution. Ecological movements arise in response to these environmental consequences and their link to social injustices.

The **Chipko Movement** in the Himalayan foothills is a prominent example of an ecological movement interlinking economic, ecological, and political concerns. Villagers, particularly women, protested against government forest contractors felling trees by hugging them ('Chipko' means 'to cling to'). At its core, the movement was a conflict over **livelihood**, pitting the subsistence needs of poor villagers who depended on the forest for daily necessities against the government's interest in commercial timber extraction for profit. This highlighted the social inequality between marginalized villagers and the state representing capitalist interests.

Beyond the economic aspect, the Chipko Movement also raised crucial issues of **ecological sustainability**. Deforestation in the region led to environmental destruction, causing devastating floods and landslides (Box 8.3 details the impact of the 1970 Alaknanda flood, linked to deforestation). For the villagers, their survival was directly tied to the health of the forest, making 'red' (economic) and 'green' (ecological) issues inseparable. They valued the forest not just for subsistence but as an ecological wealth for the benefit of all.

Furthermore, the movement reflected the **political resentment** of hill villagers towards a distant government perceived as indifferent or hostile to their concerns. Thus, the Chipko Movement was a complex struggle rooted in intertwined concerns about economy, ecology, and political representation. Recognizing the importance of ecological balance, the Government of India has initiated programs like the 'Integrated Ganga Conservation Mission' and 'Swachh Bharat Abhiyan' focused on environmental conservation and cleanliness.

Class Based Movements

Class-based movements in India have historically included peasant movements and workers' movements, reflecting struggles rooted in economic inequality and exploitation.

Peasant Movements

Agrarian struggles have a long history in India, predating colonialism. Movements between 1858 and 1914 were often localized and focused on specific grievances against colonial policies or local exploiters (e.g., Bengal revolt against indigo planters, Deccan riots against moneylenders).

During the nationalist movement, some peasant issues were integrated into the larger struggle under Mahatma Gandhi's leadership (e.g., Bardoli Satyagraha against land revenue, Champaran Satyagraha against indigo plantations). Protest movements against British forest policies also arose in certain regions.

Peasant organizations like the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (1929) and the All India Kisan Sabha (1936) emerged between 1920 and 1940, demanding freedom from economic exploitation for peasants and workers. Significant post-independence peasant movements include the Tebhaga movement (1946-47) of sharecroppers in Bengal demanding a two-thirds share of produce, supported by the Kisan Sabha and CPI, and the Telangana movement (1946-51) against feudal conditions in Hyderabad, led by the CPI. These movements involved direct action, sometimes including land occupation and establishment of parallel administration (Box 8.5 quotes descriptions of Naxalbari and Telangana movements).

New farmer's movements began in the 1970s (e.g., in Punjab, Tamil Nadu). These movements involved **farmers** (market-involved producers/purchasers) rather than traditional peasants. They were regionally organized, non-party, and often adopted an anti-state, anti-urban ideology. Their primary demands centered on 'price and related issues' (e.g., remunerative prices for produce, lower input costs, loan waivers). They employed novel agitation methods like blocking roads and boycotting politicians/bureaucrats from villages. These new farmer's movements have expanded their agenda to include environmental and women's issues, leading some to classify them as part of the worldwide 'new social movements'.

Workers’ Movements

Factory production in India began in the 1860s, initially concentrated in port towns like Calcutta and Bombay, serving colonial trade interests (procuring raw materials, marketing finished goods from the UK). Labor was cheap due to lack of regulations. The colonial government even ensured labor supply for plantations through coercive means (Chapter 1 discussion).

While formal trade unions emerged later, workers engaged in spontaneous protests. Nationalist leaders sometimes involved workers in the anti-colonial struggle. World War I spurred industrial expansion but also caused hardship (food shortages, price increases), leading to waves of strikes in textile mills (Bombay, Ahmedabad) and jute mills (Calcutta) demanding wage increases (Box 8.6 lists strikes in 1917-18).

The first trade union, the Madras Labour Union, was established in 1918 by B.P. Wadia. Mahatma Gandhi founded the Textile Labour Association (TLA) in the same year. The **All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC)** was formed in 1920, uniting diverse ideological groups (communists, moderates, nationalists). Communists gained significant control over AITUC towards the end of British rule. After independence, the Indian National Congress formed a rival union, the Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC) in 1947, leading to splits in the labor movement along political party lines at both national and regional levels. The 1966-67 recession and a major railway strike in 1974 marked periods of acute confrontation between the state and trade unions. The workers' movement was also linked to the broader struggle for civil liberties.

Caste Based Movements

Caste-based movements address issues and inequalities specifically related to the caste system. While economic exploitation and political oppression are significant dimensions, these movements also fundamentally involve a struggle for human dignity, self-confidence, self-determination, and the eradication of untouchability and stigmatization.

The Dalit Movement

The term Dalit, meaning 'downtrodden' or 'oppressed', gained prominence in the 1970s, particularly among neo-Buddhist activists and followers of Babasaheb Ambedkar. It denotes those deliberately broken down by those above them, inherently rejecting notions of pollution, karma, and justified caste hierarchy. The Dalit movement is not monolithic but comprises various movements with different ideologies and issues, all united by a quest for equality, self-dignity, and the abolition of untouchability. Examples include regional movements like the Satnami Movement, Adi Dharma Movement, Mahar Movement, Jatavas' mobilization, and the Anti-Brahman Movement in south India.

The contemporary Dalit movement holds a significant place in the public sphere, accompanied by a growing body of Dalit literature. Dalit writers emphasize using their own language and imagery rooted in their experiences, critiquing mainstream narratives and advocating for social and cultural revolt. While some focus on cultural struggle for dignity, others also incorporate structural issues, including economic dimensions.

Sociological analysis often classifies Dalit movements as encompassing reformative, redemptive, and revolutionary elements. The anti-caste movement, initiated by figures like Jotiba Phule and developed under Dr. Ambedkar's leadership, is seen as having combined revolutionary goals (abolishing caste oppression) with redemptive elements (changing individual consciousness). While the movement has achieved limited societal changes and mobility, particularly for educated Dalits, the broader goal of eradicating poverty and transforming society remains a challenge (Box 8.7).

Backward Class Castes Movements

The emergence of Backward Classes as political entities is linked to both colonial and post-colonial contexts. The colonial state's practice of distributing patronage based on caste encouraged groups to maintain caste identities for political leverage. This also led to similar caste groups uniting horizontally, shifting caste from primarily a ritualistic framework to a secularized basis for political mobilization.

The term 'Backward Classes' has been used since the late 19th century in various regions. Numerous organizations emerged from the 1920s uniting around caste issues. G.B. Pant's statement during the Constituent Assembly discussions (Box 8.8) highlights the commitment to uplift Depressed Classes, Scheduled Castes, and Backward Classes to ensure a healthy body politic. The recent 10% reservation for economically weaker sections among upper castes has sparked debate regarding its alignment with the original principles of addressing historical social disadvantage based on caste.

8.7 The Tribal Movements

Tribal groups across India, despite their diversity, share some common issues, particularly concerning land, forests, and identity. Tribal movements have been prominent in regions like the 'tribal belt' of middle India (home to Santhals, Hos, Oraons, Mundas), forming a significant part of the movement for Jharkhand. Tribal movements also exist in the North East, with their own specificities.

Jharkhand

The movement for Jharkhand, leading to its formation as a separate state in 2000, has over a century of history marked by resistance. Key aspects of the movement include:

• Charismatic Leadership: Figures like Birsa Munda led early uprisings against the British, becoming enduring symbols of the movement.
• Cultural Mobilization: Christian missionaries facilitated literacy among Adivasis, enabling them to research and document their history, myths, customs, and culture, which fostered a unified ethnic consciousness and a shared identity as Jharkhandis.
• Middle-Class Leadership: Educated Adivasis, often in government jobs, formed an intellectual leadership that articulated the demand for a separate state and engaged in lobbying.
• Anti-'Diku' Sentiment: A shared resentment against 'dikus' (migrant traders and moneylenders) who had economically exploited and alienated Adivasi land and wealth, while benefiting disproportionately from mining and industrial projects in the region.

The movement successfully mobilized Adivasi experiences of marginalization and injustice to achieve statehood. Specific issues of agitation included land acquisition for projects, stalled survey/settlement operations, resistance to loan/rent collection, and boycotting nationalized forest produce.

The North East

Tribal movements in the North East have often stemmed from a desire to maintain distinct identities and traditional autonomy in response to integration into the Indian administrative system. While historically some movements had secessionist tendencies, the trend shifted towards seeking autonomy within the framework of the Indian Constitution (Nongbri 2003). A key unifying issue across many tribal movements, including in the North East, is the alienation from forest lands, highlighting the centrality of ecological concerns alongside issues of identity and economic inequality. This overlap of issues reinforces the difficulty in strictly categorizing social movements in India as either 'old' or 'new'.

8.8 The Women’s Movement

The 19th Century Social Reform Movements And Early Women’s Organisations

The 19th-century social reform movements significantly addressed issues concerning women, such as sati, child marriage, and restrictions on widow remarriage. The early 20th century saw the formation of women's organizations like the Women's India Association (WIA), All India Women's Conference (AIWC), and National Council for Women in India (NCWI). While initially focused on limited issues, these organizations expanded their scope over time, eventually recognizing the link between women's welfare and the larger goal of national freedom. These efforts, characterized by organization, ideology, leadership, shared understanding, and the aim of public change, created an environment where the 'women's question' could no longer be ignored, arguably constituting a form of social movement.

It's crucial to remember the often-overlooked participation of women from rural and tribal communities in historical struggles. Women actively joined men in agrarian revolts and tribal uprisings during the colonial period, challenging the notion that only educated middle-class women were involved in social movements. Examples include women's participation in the Tebhaga movement, Telangana armed struggle, and the Warli tribal revolt against bondage.

Post 1947

Following India's independence in 1947, there was a period where the visibility of the women's movement seemed to decrease. Possible reasons suggested include women activists becoming involved in nation-building tasks or the trauma of Partition. However, the women's movement in India saw a significant **renewal in the mid-1970s**, often referred to as its second phase.

This phase saw changes in organizational strategies and ideologies, alongside continued focus on existing concerns. New issues gained prominence, particularly violence against women. Campaigns led to important legal changes (e.g., laws against sexual harassment, dowry). The movement also fought for women's rights concerning land ownership and employment.

A growing recognition emerged that while all women face disadvantages compared to men, the type and severity of discrimination vary significantly based on social location (class, caste). The concerns of an educated middle-class woman differ from those of a peasant woman or a Dalit woman, highlighting the intersectionality of gender with other social inequalities.

Furthermore, the movement increasingly acknowledged that dominant gender roles also constrain men, advocating for a **gender-just society** where both men and women are free from restrictive expectations and injustices. This vision of a just society relies on factors like educated women taking on multiple roles and improvements in the sex ratio. Government programs like 'Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao' aim to contribute to the realization of a gender-just society by addressing issues like female foeticide and promoting girls' education.

Conclusion

Concluding the discussion on social change and development, this chapter emphasizes the vital role of social movements. They vividly demonstrate the **dialectical relationship between the individual and society**; individuals and groups initiate movements to change their circumstances, thereby transforming both themselves and society at large. Social movements are fundamental agents of social change, constantly challenging and reshaping the social landscape.